HBC203: (Statistics and Data Analysis for the Social and Behavioural Sciences) Analyse the journal article “Young Children Show the Bystander Effect in Helping Situations” by Plötner et al. (2015)

Module / Subject / School:

HBC203: Statistics and Data Analysis for the Social and Behavioural Sciences

Singapore University of Social Sciences

Requirements:

Question 1 (53 marks)

Researchers use experimental designs to make causal inferences. However, the validity of those causal inferences depends on how well the researchers managed to rule out alternative explanations. Analyse the journal article “Young Children Show the Bystander Effect in Helping Situations” by Plötner et al. (2015) to examine, in depth, how one group of researchers designed their study to rule out alternative explanations.

Reference: Plötner, M., Over, H., Carpenter, M., & Tomasello, M. (2015). Young children show the bystander effect in helping situations. Psychological Science, 26(4), 499-506. DOI: 10.1177/0956797615569579

To help you in your analysis, answer the following questions about the article.

a. Identify the aims of this study. (2 marks)

b. Explain why the researchers felt they needed to conduct this study by describing the two problems with previous research that the article mentioned. (4 marks)

c. Identify the predictor variable. State the number of levels/conditions and identify what the levels/conditions are. Identify the outcome variable. (4 marks)

d. Identify the scale of measurement of the predictor variable and explain why. (2 marks)

e. Identify the scale of measurement of the outcome variable and explain why. (2 marks)

f. Identify if this is an experimental or observational study. Explain why in the context of this study to support your answer. (2 marks)

g. Identify if this is a between-subjects or within-subjects design. Explain why in the context of this study to support your answer. (2 marks)

h. Identify the five possible explanations for the bystander effect that the authors mentioned in this article. Discuss how the researchers tried to rule the explanations out. Specifically, for each explanation, describe the logic and whether the finding supported the logic. Here’s a generic example: “If X was the explanation for the bystander effect, then we should see Y because Z. However, Y did not happen in the study. Instead, W happened. Therefore, we can rule out X as the reason for the bystander effect.” (20 marks)

i. Identify three other aspects the researchers controlled for in their study and explain why it was important for them to control those aspects. (6 marks)

j. Identify three possible ethical concerns in this study and discuss why they were concerns. Describe how the researchers dealt with them. (9 marks)

Question 2 (47 marks)

Some experts in public health have proposed to cut tobacco-related deaths by reducing nicotine levels in cigarettes. However, critics of this proposal have argued that smokers would simply compensate by increasing the number of cigarettes smoked, thereby maintaining or even increasing the overall nicotine levels consumed in a day. The Ministry of Health has commissioned a group of medical researchers to conduct a randomized controlled trial to examine this issue.

The researchers recruited 20 male smokers who were 18 years or older, smoked five or more traditional cigarettes (i.e., tobacco cigarettes and not e-cigarettes) per day, and had no current interest in quitting smoking. They randomly assigned the participants to receive either one of two types of traditional cigarettes: Cigarettes with a typical nicotine level (15.8 mg of nicotine per gram) or cigarettes with a reduced nicotine level (2.4 mg of nicotine per gram). Participants were not told which type of cigarettes they were smoking. The researchers then tracked the number of the assigned cigarettes smoked over a six-week period.

e. Identify if this is a between-subjects or within-subjects design. Explain why in the context of this study to support your answer. (2 marks)

f. Based on the study design, identify the most appropriate parametric statistical test to conduct. Discuss why this is the most appropriate parametric test by providing two reasons in

the context of this study. (3 marks)

g. State the null hypothesis (H0) and the non-directional alternative hypothesis (H1). (2 marks)

h. Assuming all the assumptions of the statistical test you identified in (f) are met and there are no concerns about small sample size, analyse the data using jamovi. Show the jamovi spreadsheet by taking a screenshot of the spreadsheet (i.e., what you see when you click the DATA tab) and pasting it in your answer. The jamovi spreadsheet should be correctly formatted. Further, paste all the output necessary for interpretation of the results in your answer. (12 marks)

i. Interpret the results of your data analysis. Explain your answer with reference to the p value, the alpha level, and the descriptives. Use an alpha level of .05. (4 marks)

j. Report the results in APA format and state what recommendation the researchers should make to the Ministry of Health. (6 marks)

k. Discuss two limitations to this study and how you might change this study to address the limitations. (8 marks)

What we score:

70%

Our Writer’s Comment

This assignment is designed to assess students’ understanding of business practices.

To secure an A+ grade, adhere to these guidelines and make sure your work aligns with the grading criteria:

Question 1: Analyzing Plötner et al. (2015) Study

a. Identify the Aims of the Study (2 marks)

For the aim, make sure your response is clear and concise. The aim of the study should be a precise reflection of what the researchers intended to find out. For example, in this case, the aim is to examine whether the bystander effect, commonly seen in adults, also occurs in young children. If you directly tie this back to helping behavior in children, you’ll get full marks.

b. Previous Research Problems (4 marks)

Here, clearly state the two issues with prior research that the article mentioned. For instance, prior research may have lacked experimental rigor or might not have tested young children. The key is to explain why these were limitationsand how Plötner et al. tried to address them.

c. Identify the Predictor and Outcome Variables (4 marks)

To score higher, make sure you define both variables clearly and identify the number of levels for the predictor variable. For example, the predictor variable is the presence or absence of bystanders (with levels being alone, bystander present, etc.), and the outcome variable is whether or not the child helps. Ensure you also identify the scale of measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, or ratio).

d. & e. Scale of Measurement (4 marks total)

Make sure you correctly identify the scale of measurement for both the predictor and outcome variables. Explain why the scale fits—nominal for categories (like conditions) or ratio for continuous data (like time). Ensure your explanation is precise and linked to the study context.

f. Experimental vs. Observational (2 marks)

You need to justify why this study is experimental—discuss how the researchers manipulated the predictor variable (presence of bystanders) and observed the effects on the outcome variable (helping behavior).

g. Between-Subjects vs. Within-Subjects (2 marks)

Explain why the study is between-subjects—each child was exposed to only one condition (either alone or in the presence of bystanders), making this a clear between-subjects design.

h. Five Possible Explanations for the Bystander Effect (20 marks)

This is a high-mark question, so your answer should be thorough. Break down the five explanations and discuss how the study either confirmed or ruled them out. Use specific examples from the study to explain the logic behind each explanation. For instance, if one explanation is diffusion of responsibility, explain how the researchers designed the study to test this (e.g., manipulating the number of bystanders) and what the findings were.

i. Control Variables (6 marks)

Here, identify three aspects the researchers controlled for and explain why they were important. For example, controlling the number of bystanders, the child’s age, or the time of observation could be critical in ensuring that the results are reliable and valid. Be specific about why these controls matter.

j. Ethical Concerns (9 marks)

Identify and explain three ethical concerns in the study, such as informed consent, potential distress to the children, or privacy. Make sure to explain how the researchers addressed these concerns (e.g., by getting parental consent or debriefing participants).

Question 2: Public Health Study on Nicotine Levels in Cigarettes

e. Between-Subjects or Within-Subjects Design (2 marks)

This study is a between-subjects design because participants were randomly assigned to one of two groups (high-nicotine or low-nicotine cigarettes) and only experienced one condition.

f. Most Appropriate Parametric Test (3 marks)

For this study, the independent samples t-test would likely be the most appropriate because you’re comparing the means between two independent groups (high vs. low nicotine). Explain why this test fits the study—mention that it compares group means and assumes normal distribution.

g. Null and Alternative Hypotheses (2 marks)

Be clear and formal in stating the hypotheses. For example:

H0: There is no difference in the number of cigarettes smoked between participants using high-nicotine and low-nicotine cigarettes.
H1: There is a difference in the number of cigarettes smoked between participants using high-nicotine and low-nicotine cigarettes.

h. Using jamovi for Data Analysis (12 marks)

Make sure the jamovi spreadsheet is properly formatted and you include all relevant output (e.g., t-test results, means, standard deviations). Paste screenshots of both the spreadsheet and the results to ensure clarity.

i. Interpreting the Results (4 marks)

Interpret the p-value and the alpha level. If p < 0.05, you would reject the null hypothesis and conclude that nicotine level affects the number of cigarettes smoked. Discuss the implications of the results based on the data you’ve analyzed.

j. Reporting in APA Format (6 marks)

For APA format, ensure that you include the results in a precise and concise manner. For example:

“An independent samples t-test was conducted to compare the number of cigarettes smoked between the high-nicotine and low-nicotine groups. There was a significant difference in the number of cigarettes smoked, t(18) = 2.12, p = 0.045.”

k. Limitations (8 marks)

Identify two limitations of the study, such as small sample size or lack of diversity among participants. Propose specific changes that could address these limitations, like increasing sample size or including female smokers to improve generalizability.

Final Tips:

Be thorough and specific: Wherever you can, support your answers with specific examples from the study or data analysis.
Double-check APA formatting: Ensure that your hypotheses, results, and references are correctly formatted according to APA guidelines.
Engage with the content critically: Go beyond just answering the questions—critically assess the methods, findings, and ethical considerations.

Why are we trusted by Singaporean part-time students?

Assurance of Academic Success: We are confident in the quality of our work so much so that we offer a 200% money-back guarantee if our work is not of sure-pass quality. This showcases our unwavering commitment to delivering exceptional essays that consistently meet the highest academic standards.
Well-Established and Trusted: With a decade of experience in the industry, we have built a strong and reputable presence. Our long-standing track record speaks to our ability to consistently deliver outstanding results. Students can have confidence in our extensive expertise and our proven ability to help bachelor and master’s students excel in their academic pursuits.
Strict Confidentiality: We prioritize the confidentiality and privacy of our clients. Students can trust that their personal information and engagement with our service will be treated with the utmost confidentiality and security. We never disclose any client details to third parties.
Valuable Testimonials: We are proud to have received numerous testimonials from hundreds of satisfied students who have benefited from our services. These testimonials serve as a testament to the trust and satisfaction students place in our essay writing service. The positive feedback highlights the quality of our work and the positive impact we have had on our clients’ academic journeys.

Sample Assignment

We have done well for this piece, but are unfortunately unable to share with you. Why not have us work on a model assignment for you instead? You can know more about the service here.